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Sunday, July 1, 2018

AntArcTica In Global Warming




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West Antarctic Ice Sheet Stable?

Is West Antarctic Ice Sheet stable: Exceeding critical temperature limits in the Southern Ocean may cause the collapse of West Antarctic Ice Sheets.



A sharp rise in sea levels From the ALFRED WEGENER INSTITUTE, HELMHOLTZ CENTRE FOR POLAR AND MARINE RESEARCH and modeled certainty department: Future warming of the Southern Ocean caused by rising greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere may severely…"




Exceeding critical temperature limits in the Southern Ocean may cause the collapse of West Antarctic Ice Sheets and a sharp rise in sea levels From the ALFRED WEGENER INSTITUTE, HELMHOLTZ CENTRE FOR POLAR AND MARINE RESEARCH and modeled certainty department: Future warming of the Southern Ocean caused by rising greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere may severely…




Is West Antarctic Ice Sheet stable: West Antarctic Ice Sheet Exceeding critical temperature limits in the Southern Ocean may cause the collapse of ice sheets and a sharp rise in sea levels.




arctic Ice Sheet stable: From the ALFRED WEGENER INSTITUTE, HELMHOLTZ CENTRE FOR POLAR AND MARINE RESEARCH and modeled certainty department:



Is West Antarctic Ice Sheet stable: Future warming of the Southern Ocean caused by rising greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere may severely disrupt the stability of the West




Is West Antarctic Ice Sheet stable: The Antarctic and Greenland are covered by West Antarctic Ice Sheets, which together store more than two thirds of the world’s freshwater. As temperatures rise, ice masses melt; in consequence the global sea level rises and threatens the coastal regions.



According to scientific findings, the Antarctic already today contributes to the annual sea level rise with 0.4 millimetres.

However, the most recent world climate assessment report (IPCC 2013) pointed out that the development of the ice masses in the Antarctic is not yet sufficiently understood.

Climate modellers of the Alfred Wegener Institute have therefore analysed the changes to the West Antarctic Ice Sheet in the last interglacial period and applied their findings to future projections.




Is West Antarctic Ice Sheet stable: “Both, for the last interglacial period around 125,000 years ago and for the future our study identifies critical temperature limits in the Southern Ocean: If the ocean temperature rises by more than two degrees Celsius compared with today, the marine-based West Antarctic Ice Sheet will be irreversibly lost.

This will then lead to a significant Antarctic contribution to the sea level rise of some three to five metres”, explains AWI climate scientist Johannes Sutter.

This rise, however, will only occur if climate change continues as it has up to now.

The researchers make these assessments based on model simulations.




Is West Antarctic Ice Sheet stable: “Given a business-as-usual scenario of global warming, the collapse of the West Antarctic could proceed very rapidly and the West Antarctic ice masses could completely disappear within the next 1,000 years”, says Johannes Sutter, the study’s main author, who has just completed his doctoral thesis on this topic.

“The core objective of the study is to understand the dynamics of the West Antarctic during the last interglacial period and the associated rise in sea level.

It has been a mystery until now how the estimated sea level rise of a total of about seven metres came about during the last interglacial period.

Because other studies indicate that Greenland alone could not have done it”, Prof Gerrit Lohmann, the head of the research project, adds.



Is West Antarctic Ice Sheet stable: The new findings on the dynamics of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet allow conclusions to be drawn about how the West Antarctic Ice Sheet might behave in the wake of global warming.

According to model calculations, the ice masses shrink in two phases.

The first phase leads to a retreat of the ice shelves, ice masses that float on the ocean in the coastal area of the Antarctic stabilising the major glacier systems of the West Antarctic.


If the ice shelves are lost, the ice masses and glaciers of the hinterland accelerate and the ice flow into the oceans increases.

As a result, the sea level rises, the grounding line retreats, leading to a further floatation of the grounded ice masses with a progressing acceleration and retreat of the glaciers.

These will achieve a stable intermediate state only once – put simply – a mountain ridge under the ice temporarily slows down the retreat of the ice masses.


Is West Antarctic Ice Sheet stable: If the ocean temperature continues to rise or if the grounding line of the inland ice reaches a steeply ascending subsurface, then the glaciers will continue to retreat even if the initial stable intermediate state has been reached.



Ultimately, this leads to a complete collapse of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet.

“Two maxima are also apparent in the reconstructions of the sea level rise in the last interglacial period.

The behaviour of the West Antarctic in our newly developed model could be the mechanistic explanation for this”, says a delighted Johannes Sutter.



Is West Antarctic Ice Sheet stable: The climate scientists used two models in their study.

A climate model that includes various Earth system components such as atmosphere, oceans and vegetation, and a dynamic West Antarctic Ice Sheet model that includes all basic components of an West Antarctic Ice Sheet (floating ice shelves, grounded inland ice on the subsurface, the movement of the grounding line).

Two different simulations were used with the climate model for the last interglacial period to feed the West Antarctic Ice Sheet model with all the necessary climate information.



Is West Antarctic Ice Sheet stable: “One reason for the considerable uncertainties when it comes to projecting the development of the sea level is that the West Antarctic Ice Sheet does not simply rest on the continent in steady state, but rather can be subject to dramatic changes”, according to the AWI climate scientists, emphasizing the challenges involved in making good estimates.

“Some feedback processes, such as between the ice shelf areas and the ocean underneath, have not yet been incorporated into the climate models.

We at the AWI as well as other international groups are working on this full steam.”

Improving our understanding of the systematic interaction between climate and West Antarctic Ice Sheets is crucial in order to answer one of the central questions of current climate research and for future generations: How steeply and, above all, how quickly can the sea level rise in the future?

Is West Antarctic Ice Sheet stable: The result would be a rise in the global sea level by several meters.

A collapse of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet may have occurred during the last interglacial period 125,000 years ago, a period when the polar surface temperature was around two degrees Celsius higher than today.



Is West Antarctic Ice Sheet stable: This is the result of a series of model simulations which the researchers of the Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Center for Polar and Marine Research (AWI) have published on-line in the journal Geophysical Research Letters.

Saturday, June 30, 2018

Empire of Dirt #1


The Empire of Public Health and Safety





The Empire of Civil Public Health and Safety

The Empire Public Health and Safety Page dedicated to golden silence in the garden of our mind. This perpetual-constant-present-moment is an enactment of detachment from the corporeal mundane and non-corporeal multiverse environment as one mindset.

Everything experienced in the present moments solidifies our mundane and dream-state lives, and then reciprocates back into the mundane and the back again tot he dream state.One feeds upon the other in self creationism.








This, The Empire, is an unavoidable constant solidification mundane to the multiverse dream-state synchronicity in waking-dreams. The Empire is a mental state of constant lucidity manifesting the multiverse lucid dream state and mundane corporeal world as one ocean, and one mind lucidity of constant present moment.

According to the Space-Command's DSM21, (Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Psychic Development), manual of Public Health and Safety enables stellar fleet personnel safe effective O.O.B.E./astral-projection and remote-viewing.

Also warns, without hardening the human mental firewall will cause sleep deprivation illnesses of schizo-effective disorders if the visual, auditory, and sensational hallucinations.

Therefore, According the DSM21 of waking-dreams procedures, and procurement that being lucid within their waking-dream-state, will experience and induce psychic shock by default schizo-effective disorders via sleep deprivation.


This is a common manifest by irrational fears of death creating maladjusted waking-dream states. To firewall the mind a safe launch into the lucid dream-state is the only safe method approach, but be mindful what you fear may haunt you.

Irrational fears of death coincide with improperly mindfulness of fear translations.

A sluggish undisciplined mind regards non-corporeal mental-states translated as a death experience into the subconscious mind's self-preservation instinctive will slingshot the cadet returning to corporeal state setting back mental development.

This also causes sleep deprivation for cadet resonating a fear of sleep which the subconscious mind believes it is involved in a near death experience, but is not factual.

This also opposes waking-dream state experiences whereby a cadet will not recall the dream state and wake with voided memories and or fleeting memories of dream experiences.

This, The Empire, is an ancient wisdom erased from history to entrap and force the entire populations of earth into a schizo-effective prison-planet of insanity lacking cognizance of waking-dreams self-awareness and a over-all global lower IQ.

By not knowing how to fire-wall your mind by understanding irrational fears of death retards a cadets mental capacities.




The earth is known as The Empire of Dirt, and the human who are trapped their are known as dirt-eaters to the stellar-fleet personnel.

The ancients before the failed-Empires predating Sumerian civilization were the Power-DNA race, also currently known as the master-races that created monoliths of massive stone structures throughout earth’s civilizations and upon other planets in our stellar system.

This architects were quantum-entanglement geniuses and these structures are among us today in the 21st century.

Those who own earth and who secretly rule over the human populations of earth have rewritten history into fairy-tales lacking the history of advanced ancient technological civilizations,

This recreating history in manifested into story books known as religious holy-books of their own creation, and furthering their “Mastering The Human Domain" of earth.
The Empire of this master-race is of an alien powder-DNA, (PDNA), which recreated history refuses to acknowledge ancient industrialized FTL-star-traveling civilizations that currently reside in our oceans, in deep underground cities and on planets in our stellar-system.








The Empire's PDNA race is not entirely human by nature as we have been allowed to believe and-or understand.

This PDNA is far-more intense with lucidity of waking-dreams and the power of the present moment.

The PDNA is naturally occurring lucidity with memories of history, technology, and acquired knowledge of their many lost civilizations within our stellar-system,

The position of planets, stars positions, distant galaxies and far more are all encoded as if the experiences were yesterday and remembered in full.

This PDNA knowledge of advanced math, economics, ZPE technologies, and all wisdom of the ancients is kept secret from humanity as your read these words of this present moment.

These human types ounce appeared not human and are of the capensis homo-erectus species






They are an ancient remanence of a once ancient military-industrial-complex-civilization.

These, who mastered star travel same as the secret space programs now exist.  They destroyed themselves in a stellar war here in our solar-system.

The events have been recorded in the Hindu books Mahabharata (महाभारत): One of the two major ancient Sanskrit epics of India, the other being the Ramayana. 

This PDNA, known as the master-race of alien DNA survived by masking their appearance to the likeness of us homo-sapiens, us human-beings.

So they needed to copulate breeding with human race in order to hide their nearly transparent pale-white-skin, huge capensis homo-erectus heads and crystal-white-blue-green-eyes.







These PDNA sapient exist till this day and the only recorded history of them is in the Hindu ancient historic and religious writings known as the “powder-race” of super human warriors who spoke with their minds and not entirely by their lips, but both at the same-time.
The PDNA would read the minds of their enemies defeating them all before. The capensis homo-erectus would interrogate their  enemies in their dream-state and during in battle knew their every move even before their opponents did.

Only few powder race reside in the bowls of earth of northern and southern polar regions of earth.
They harness the magnetic etheric fields of earth for energy power resources.
When the breeding stock was perfected in the last breeding cycle, known as the equal sentient and were no longer noticeable by sight.
After the last procreation they spread like locusts to the four corners of this world, created all known religions with exception of the Hindi religions were and remain almost entirely untainted hidden from these ancients.







The capensis deeply despise the Hindi-Race, but they could never conquer them in wars from before their apocalypse which destroyed their military industrial civilizations of ancient times.
Till this present day they walk among us as the money changers, genealogical master race of globalist that walk by us in city streets every-day.

The pure blood capensis may be your friends, but they are all lucid in their dream from within the womb till the moment they are born.








To speak wrongly of their white skin is a crime and racist and forbidden even to mention their ethnicity, thus our Master Race of all.
These masters of the human race have star-trek level technologies known as time-space warping quantum-entanglement trans-dimensional technologies.

This technology will be used to invade earth in a preplaned false alien invasion in order to sell all who remains to real-life alien races from other worlds.
George Orwell, (a known historical published writer), was instructed by the PDNA to write a crypto globalist predictive-programming propaganda book called “1984”.

Who are the UFO aliens visiting planet earth? They Are The Aliens from within slowly evolving the human-race into extinction. 500-million earth population.






I Am Them!


'Special Thanks Donation'











Wednesday, June 27, 2018

UnSecret Space-Program

The United States Space-Force


U.S. Space-ForceWATCH ABOVE; At a public meeting of the National Space Council Monday, U.S. President Donald Trump announced the establishment of a space force as the 6th branch of the military. 

U.S. President Donald Trump, (POTUS45), has instructed the Pentagon to establish a “U.S. Military Space Force of Stellar Operations and Readiness” as the sixth branch of the American military.








The Air Force has requested a budget of US$156.3 billion for next year. It’s unclear if the price tag for Trump’s new Space Force will be identical.

The U.S. military currently consists of five branches: Army, Navy, Air Force, Marines and Coast Guard.
“It is going to be something — so important,” Trump said.




Trump said, in a speech delivered at a meeting of the National Space Council: “When it comes to defending America, it is not enough to merely have an American presence in space,”


Trump said at the time that he first came up with the Space Force as a joke, but quickly became enamoured with the idea.

“I was saying it the other day because we are doing a tremendous amount of work in space,” he previously said. “We’ll call it the space force and I was not really serious, and then I said, ‘What a great idea. Maybe we’ll have to do that.’”




Trump ordered the U.S. Department of Defense, (USDOD), and the Pentagon to “immediately begin the process necessary to establish a Space Force defined and also known as traffic control.

 The United States of American has fallen behind in a space pesence that Russia, and Their Allies are now leading above and beyond the U.S. 

The president characterized his own announcement as a “big statement,” and added that the Space Force and the Air Force will be considered “separate but equal.”


The Air Force has requested a budget of US$156.3 billion for next year. It’s unclear if the price tag for Trump’s new Space Force will be identical.



Video HERE:

High Alert - U.S. Warns Russia On Space Superiority
Air Force Gen. John E. Hyten, commander of U.S. Strategic Command, testifies on space situational awareness before the House Armed Services Committee's strategic forces subcommittee and the House Science, Space and Technology Subcommittee in Washington, June 22, 2018.




"The Future of Humanity" is written and published by author Dr. Michio Kaku who speaks in this video above on President Trump's new space directive. 

Dr. Michio Kaku explains the importance of industry lowering cost of stellar space flight and increase the potential of mineral resource mining of asteroids, planets and recycling space junk.





An actually USAF Patch.
The Above you-tube video is SecureTeam10 channel and presents their alternative conspiracy perspective. 

 Many whistle blowers describe the existence of a military Industrial Complex space fleet currently in operation since the 1940's.


 They call it the "Secret Space Program in which this video describes why many compartmentalization test piloting programs may-be in opposition to this new 6th military branch of service not unless they merge. 




Another Real USAF Patch.

  This already existing secret-space-program will become more fluid through the "Space-Force".

Have advanced since before 1940's 2k to 50k year advanced technologies already in operations within, above and beyond our stellar-system base of operations; so they say.

  I love science-fiction is why all this intrigues me so. This is really fun to research up on and now the possibility that some of these modern mythologies of science-fiction regards the "Secret-Space-Program" makes life a little more exciting. 




 

POTUS45 said. "We must have American dominance in space… I’m hereby directing the Department of Defense and Pentagon to immediately begin the process necessary to establish a space force as the sixth branch of the armed forces…. We are going to have the Air Force, and we are going to have the space force. Separate, but equal. It is going to be something so important.:

Trump then commanded General Joseph Dunford, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, to “carry that assignment out.”

Trump’s stance is at odds with previous statements by the U.S. Air Force Secretary, Air Force Chief of Staff, and James Mattis, Secretary of Defense, who all came out in opposition to a Congressional initiative in 2017 to establish a Space Corps. Mattis wrote in a letter:

I oppose the creation of a new military service and additional organizational layers at a time when we are focused on reducing overhead and integrating joint warfighting efforts.

Trump’s initiative thereby stands out since he has gone against the recommendations of his most senior military advisors.



In Depth - Space Force



The United States of America will soon have a separate Space Command, that will better organise and advance the military's vast operations in space. The Space Command is expected to improve the US military’s technological advances in space. Today in IN DEPTH we go into the details of what is the US Space Command ... what was the need to create it.

Trump announced today in a speech and confirmed a 6th branch of the military called the "Space Force".

The "secret space program" whistle-blower and wiki-type leakers are claiming that they have been validated by saying that this new Space Force is the "Secret-Space-Program that they have making money off of all long.

So in this video topics mention will be discussed and the main stream media's reaction along with twitters tweets on this new breaking subject in this video.

Viruses, Parasites, Bacteria, and Micron Filter Purifiers



Water Filtration and-or Purifiers Reference



Water purification methods

  1. 1. WATER PURIFICATION METHODS Natural purification Purification at small scale Purification at large scale
  1. 2.Natural purification methods •Aeration •Oxidation •Filtration through layers of soil
    •Aquatic animals
    •Evaporation
    •Flow of water
  1. 3.PURIFICATION AT SMALL SCALE • DOMESTIC FILTER • BOILING • CHEMICAL PROCESS
  1. 4. 1. DOMESTIC FILTER A. CLOTH FILTER
  1. 5. B. CERAMIC FILTER
  1. 6. INSTUCTIONS TO USE THE FILTER CANDLE
  1. 7. C. ULTRA VIOLET FILTER
  1. 8. PARTS OF ULTRA VIOLET FILTER
    • Pre filter
    • Activated carbon
    • Ultra violet chamber
    • Electronic monitoring system
  1. 9. 2. BOILING
    • Advantages: – Simple and effective method of purification – Will kill many waterborne bacteria through the intense heat – Uses local available materials. 
    • Disadvantages: – Can sometimes be difficult, time consuming, and cost inefficient because of the high volume of fuel used – Will not remove mud from ‘murky’ water – Will not remove suspended or dissolved compounds
  1. 10. 3. CHEMICAL PROCESS BLEACHING POWDER
  1. 11.
    Advantages: – Easy to use method of chemical purification of water – Effective at killing bacteria and viruses – Inexpensive. 
    Disadvantages: – Not effective at killing all parasites. – Complex compounds can form with organic material which over time can be hazardous to health. – It is best to use the water in a shorter period of time and store it in a plastic container in a cool and shaded place.
  1. 12. CHLORINE SOLUTION
  1. 13. CHLORINE TABLET
    • Halazone tablet is available in the market.
    • Good to disinfect the small quantities of water.
    • Costly.
    • 0.5 g sufficient to disinfect 20 liter of water.
  1. 14. INSTRUCTIONS TO USE CHLORINE TABLET
  1. 15. ALUM
  1. 16. IODINE
    • Emergency method to disinfect the water.
    • Two drops of iodine with 2% ethanol solution sufficient for I liter of water.
    • Larger amount will stimulate thyroid activity.
  1. 17. POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE
    • No longer recommended for disinfection of water.
    • It will alter the color, smell and taste of water.


This article is part of our series: Hydration Basics.
 A hiker refills her water bottle from a lake using a squeeze filter



Water treatment is important to maintaining your health in the outdoors. Not all water sources are unsafe, but even the most pristine-looking source can make you sick. If livestock, wildlife or humans can reach an area, so can contaminants transmitted via their fecal matter.
As more and more of us explore wild places, contamination levels rise. Why play intestinal roulette when you have so many options for treating your water?

This article offers guidance on selecting a water-treatment method to use in the outdoors. To learn about options for travel abroad, read Water Treatment for International Travel.
Consider these factors when choosing a water filter or other water-treatment method:
  • Filters vs. purifiers: Know what you’re trying to avoid and the basic methods for avoiding it.
  • Types of water filters and water purifiers: The effort required for each type of water-treatment method varies, as does the time for water to be ready to drink.
  • The role of a prefilter: If you have to treat water from a murky source, it’s a valuable accessory to have.
  • Know water treatment best practices: Even the best filter or purifier isn’t effective if you don’t follow some basic hygiene and usage guidelines.

Water Filters vs. Water Purifiers

The difference between a water filter and a water purifier is the size of the microorganism each combats:

Water filters work by physically straining out protozoan cysts (such as Cryptosporidium and Giardia lamblia) and bacteria (such as E. coli, Salmonella, Campylobacter and Shigella). These biological pathogens are the main water concerns if you’re traveling in the U.S. and Canada.

Water purifiers also combat viruses, which are too tiny for most filters to effectively catch. If you’re traveling in less-developed areas of the world, consider products that also provide protection for viruses (such as hepatitis A, rotavirus and norovirus).

How Water Filters and Purifiers Work

Every filter and many purifiers include an internal element or cartridge, a component that has microscopic pores that catch debris, protozoa and bacteria. Over time, strained matter gums up an element’s pores, requiring it to be cleaned and eventually replaced.

Most purifiers use chemicals (such as iodine) to kill viruses, which are too small for most filter elements. Another purification method relies instead on ultraviolet light to treat the pathogens.

Many filters and purifiers also include activated carbon in their elements because it’s effective at removing unpleasant tastes from things like leaf tannins. Activated carbon also reduces contaminants like pesticides and other industrial chemicals.

The Role of a Prefilter

Different factors can murk up your water in different ways, such as glacial sediment, silty water, leaf debris and mud stirred up by a rainstorm. Natural particles, though not a health concern, impact how easy water is to treat, how much field maintenance is required and the lifespan of filter elements.

One way to deal with these issues is to use a prefilter. A prefilter is an accessory that simply removes large particles from your water to improve the treatment process.
Many pump-style products come with a prefliter, or you may need to purchase one separately. Here are some reasons to consider using one:
  • It helps maintain a pump filter’s flow rate, lessen cleaning chores and extend its element life.
  • It improves the effectiveness of chemical treatments.
  • It’s absolutely essential prior to using a UV purifier on nonclear water.

Types of Water Filters and Water Purifiers

Quick Reference Guide to Water Filters and Purifiers123123123
Method All-around performance Large volume Low maintenance Ease of use Low weight Low cost Speed
Pump filters and purifiers x x




Gravity filters and purifiers
x
x


Ultraviolet (UV) purifiers

x x

 x
Bottle filters and purifiers


x x
 x
Squeeze filters


x x
 x
Straw-style filters


x x
 x
Chemicals

 x x x x
Boiling x  x  x
x

The summary below covers the basics for each treatment method, but innovation has produced hybrid designs and many unique products. So use this assessment as a starting point, then delve deeply into product descriptions, specs and reviews.

Pump Filters and Purifiers

A hiker refills his water bottle from a stream using a pump filter




Drop the intake hose into your source and the outlet hose into your water bottle, then work the pump. Some models thread directly to a bottle or reservoir. Pump mechanisms differ, as do flow rates, so compare specs.

Pros:
  • You can process precisely the amount of water you need.
  • Water can be pulled from seeps and shallow water sources.
  • The internal element or cartridge is replaceable.
Cons:
  • Pumping can be a chore, especially at the end of the element’s lifespan.
  • Field cleaning of the element is required.
  • Weight and bulk are greater than other treatment methods.

Gravity Filters and Purifiers

A camper hangs a gravity filter from a treeFill a reservoir, find a suitable place to hang everything up and wait. Most models come with a pair of reservoirs and an inline filter, though the exact setup and provided water containers can vary.

Pros:
  • Gravity does the work for you.
  • You can easily process large quantities of water for a big group.
  • The element or cartridge is replaceable.
Cons:
  • It can be hard to find a place to hang reservoirs.
  • Treatment process is slower than pumping.
  • Seeps and shallow water sources can make it challenging to fill a reservoir.
  • Field cleaning of the element is required.

Ultraviolet (UV) Light Purifiers

Using an ultraviolet light purifier to sterilize water in a bottleGrab one of these pen-style devices, push a button and stir. Stop when its UV light turns off (60 seconds or so) and you will have treated all the water inside a bottle.

Pros:
  • Treatment is easy and water is quickly drinkable.
  • No element cleaning and replacement are ever needed.
Cons:
  • Requires batteries.
  • Silty or cloudy water impairs effectiveness, requiring you to prefilter.
  • Multiple treatments are required to produce large quantities.

Bottle Filters and Purifiers

Using a fill and sip bottle with built in filter



Offering fill-and-sip simplicity, these bottles have built-in filtration or purification elements. Some use the suction provided when you sip from a bite valve, while others work like a coffee press. Another model uses UV light.
Pros:
  • Treatment is easy and water is quickly drinkable.
  • The element or cartridge is replaceable.
  • On average, lighter and cost less than pump and gravity filters.
Cons:
  • Water quantity is limited by bottle size.
  • Field cleaning of the element is required.

Squeeze Filters

Using a squeeze bottle with built in filter



This broad category is similar to bottle filters except that you’re filling a small reservoir, then squeezing water through the filtration element.
Pros:
  • Treatment is easy and water is quickly drinkable.
  • The element or cartridge is replaceable.
  • Some double as a gravity filter or straw-style filter.
  • On average, lighter, smaller and cost less than pump and gravity filters.
Cons:
  • Water quantity is limited by reservoir, flask or bottle size.
  • Field cleaning of the element is required.

Straw-Style Filters

Using a straw filter from a stream



Providing water on demand, these cylinders have a built-in element that lets you slurp directly from the source.
  
Pros:
  • Treatment is easy and water is quickly drinkable.
  • On average, lighter and cost less than pump and gravity filters.
Cons:
  • Water is only available when you’re at a water source.
  • Generally only a 1-person treatment option.
  • Field cleaning of the element is required.
  • Not all models have replaceable elements.

Chemicals

Two bottles of water neutralizing tabletsEffective against protozoa, bacteria and viruses, you simply add them to gathered water and wait. Products are typically iodine- or chlorine-based and available in drops, pills or gadgets that mix base ingredients.

Pros:
  • Easy to use.
  • Ultra-inexpensive, ultra-small and ultralight.
  • An excellent backup method to pack in case your main filter breaks.
Cons:
  • Wait time before drinking is 30 minutes to 4 hours, longer for icy cold water.
  • Iodine products impart a chemical taste—can be countered by taste-neutralizer tablets.
  • Iodine products aren’t effective against Cryptosporidium, though they work fine against other types of protozoa.
  • Iodine products can be a concern to pregnant women and people with a thyroid condition.

Boiling

A backpacker boils water



Your stove, fuel and a pot are an effective treatment system to combat the full spectrum of biological pathogens. Bring water to a rolling boil for 1 minute; if you’re above 6,500 feet, boil it for 3 minutes.
Pros:
  • The only additional supply you need to pack along is extra fuel.
  • Murky water doesn’t impair effectiveness.
  • Serves as a readily available backup method in case your main filter breaks.
Cons:
  • Time and effort required to bring water to a boil.
  • Wait time for the water to cool.
  • If it’s your primary treatment method, you need to pack an extra fuel container.

Water Treatment Tips and Best Practices

Avoiding a few key mistakes and taking a few precautions will make any treatment method more effective.
  • Separate and clearly designate dirty and clean water containers.
  • Pay close attention to directions because every product has detailed steps to avoid cross contamination (introducing nontreated water into your treated water).
  • Seek out clean water because sediment impairs treatment effectiveness. If only murky sources are available, use a prefilter or allow sediment to settle from gathered water.
  • Keep your hands clean by packing hand sanitizer and using it often.
  • Keep camp, toilet and dishwashing areas at least 200 feet from any water source. For details on all Leave No Trace principles see LNT.org.


    Bacteria & Virus Issues

    Microbial and organic contaminants can't always be detected through sight, smell or taste. You might go years before realizing a problem exists. 

    Although some waterborne microbes can cause illness, many microbes are harmless or even beneficial. Very small levels of microbes are naturally present in many water supplies, but some are more dangerous than others. Some of the more dangerous microbial contaminants, such as E. coli, Giardia, and Cryptosporidium, can cause gastrointestinal problems and flu-like symptoms commonly attributed to undercooked or improperly stored food. They include:

    Bacteria: Single-celled organisms lacking well-defined nuclear membranes and other specialized functional cell parts which reproduce by cell division or spores. Bacteria may be free-living organisms or parasites. Bacteria (along with fungi) are decomposers that break down the wastes and bodies of dead organisms, making their components available for reuse. Bacterial cells range from about 1 to 10 microns in length and from 0.2 to 1 micron in width. They exist almost everywhere on earth. Some bacteria are helpful to humans, while others are harmful.

    Viruses:  Parasitic infectious microbes, composed almost entirely of protein and nucleic acids, which can cause disease(s) in humans. Viruses can reproduce only within living cells. They are 0.004 to 0.1 microns in size, which is about 100 times smaller than bacteria.

    Cysts: Capsules or protective sacs produced by many protozoans (as well as some bacteria and algae) as preparation for entering a resting or a specialized reproductive stage. Similar to spores, cysts tend to be more resistant to destruction by disinfection. Fortunately, protozoan cysts are typically 2 to 50 microns in diameter and can be removed from water by fine filtration.

    There are both chemical and physical ways to disinfect water. Chemical disinfection often uses halogens such as chlorine, iodine, bromine, or ozone, while common physical choices are ultraviolet (UV) light, ultrafiltration, and distillation. These processes can eliminate 99.9 - 99.9999% of harmful microorganisms.
    Water treatment can address pathogenic microbiologicals through the following techniques:

    Chlorination

    The treatment process in which chlorine gas or a chlorine solution is added to water for disinfection and control of microorganisms. Chlorination is also used in the oxidation of dissolved iron, manganese, and hydrogen sulfide impurities. This method of disinfection involves adding chlorine to water to make it safer to drink. It’s common, cost-effective, and quick, killing many pathogenic microorganisms. It can even oxidize or break down iron, manganese, and hydrogen sulfide, which can result in water that is clearer and tastes better.
    Some people find that chlorine gives water its own objectionable chemical taste and odor. It also can produce disinfection byproducts (which may cause health issues) by reacting with other substances in water when stored. These byproducts can often be filtered out with activated carbon.

    Ultraviolet (UV) Light


    The UV disinfection method, which does not involve chemicals, has long been popular for commercial use, but is becoming more common in homes. UV systems expose water to light at just the right wavelength for killing microbes. It’s a way to kill bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoans, and cysts that may be present in the water. 

    The effectiveness of UV treatment depends on the strength and intensity of the light, the amount of time the light shines through the water, and the quantity of particles present in the water. The light source must be kept clean and the UV lamp replaced periodically. UV light treatment can’t remove gases, heavy metals, and particulates; for that reason higher-end systems may include additional filtration such as activated carbon.

    Ozone


    Ozone is produced when oxygen is exposed to high-voltage current. The use of ozone in water treatment can destroy viruses, bacteria, and other microorganisms, while also removing iron, sulfur and manganese. Ozone does its job quickly and then rapidly decomposes, cutting down on the introduction of harmful disinfection byproducts and foul tastes or odors associated with chlorination. This process tends to be more costly and energy-consuming and is typically used commercially or by large municipalities.

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